Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 77
The intersection of social cohesion, women's resilience and social justice in
rural communities of developing nations: Evidence from Nigeria
La intersección de la cohesión social, la resiliencia de las mujeres y la justicia
social en las comunidades rurales de los países en desarrollo: evidencia de
Nigeria
Felicia Mbagwu 1 , Samuel Okafor2, Chioma Osilike1, Elizaeth Obiozo 1, Chibuike Ochiagha1
, Ugwoke Ngozika 1 , Kingsley Ogbonnaya1 , Ngozi Igwe1 and Mary Okengwu 1
1 Department of Continuing Education and Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
2Department of Sociology/Anthropology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
*Corresponding author: Kingsley Ogbonnaya asogu.ogbonnaya@unn.edu.ng
Received 2024-12-31. Approved 2025-07-01
DOI: https://doi.org/10.26754/ojs_ais/ais.20254711435
Resumen
Las prácticas tradicionales nocivas en el África subsahariana son un problema con implicaciones para
la justicia social a nivel nacional y global. Si bien se han convertido en un problema tropical
desatendido a nivel global, siguen representando un desafío profundo para la población indígena,
especialmente en las comunidades rurales. Los objetivos del presente estudio incluyen examinar la
relación entre la cohesión social y la vulnerabilidad a las prácticas culturales nocivas, examinar los
factores de vulnerabilidad a dichas prácticas y examinar los factores asociados a la identificación con
la cohesión social entre las mujeres del sureste rural de Nigeria. El estudio involucró a 1098 mujeres
casadas de organizaciones comunitarias. Se aplicó un diseño de encuesta en el estudio, mientras que
para la recopilación de datos de las encuestadas se utilizó un cuestionario desarrollado a partir de la
escala de cohesión social y la Escala de Calidad de Vida Relacionada con el Trabajo (WRQoL). Los datos
recopilados se analizaron mediante estadística inferencial. Según los hallazgos del estudio, existe una
correlación negativa entre la cohesión social y la vulnerabilidad a las prácticas culturales tradicionales
nocivas rho(1098) = -.407, p < .001, la vulnerabilidad a las prácticas tradicionales nocivas se predice
mediante variables socioeconómicas (R2 = 0.850 p < .001), mientras que la identificación con la
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 78
cohesión social se predice mediante variables socioeconómicas (R2 = 0.932 p < .001). En conclusión,
el estudio demostró que las prácticas culturales nocivas aún existen entre las mujeres en el sureste
rural de Nigeria; sin embargo, estas son sensibles a la cohesión social entre las mujeres. El estudio
sugiere una mayor cohesión social y sensibilización entre las mujeres para reducir su vulnerabilidad.
Palabras clave: cohesión social, prácticas culturales tradicionales nocivas, violencia de género, justicia social,
desarrollo sostenible, desarrollo comunitario.
Abstract
Harmful traditional practices in sub-Saharan Africa remain a major issue with both national and global
social justice implications. While such practices are no longer common in developed nations, they
continue to pose significant challenges in developing nations, particularly in rural communities.
The objectives of this study were to examine the relationship between social cohesion and women’s
vulnerability to harmful cultural practices in rural southeastern Nigeria, to investigate the factors
contributing to such practices, and to explore the factors influencing women’s participation in social
cohesion activities.
The study involved 1,098 married women from community-based organizations. A survey design was
employed, and data were collected using a questionnaire developed from the Social Cohesion Scale
and the Work-Related Quality of Life (WRQoL) Scale. The collected data were analyzed using
inferential statistics. Findings revealed a negative correlation between social cohesion and women’s
vulnerability to harmful cultural practices [rho(1098) = –0.407, p < .001]. Women’s vulnerability to
harmful traditional practices was significantly predicted by socioeconomic variables (R² = 0.850, p
<0.001), while women’s identification with social cohesion activities was also predicted by
socioeconomic variables (R² = 0.932, p <0.001).
In conclusion, the study demonstrates that harmful cultural practices persist among women in rural
southeastern Nigeria; however, social cohesion among women strengthens resistance against them.
The study recommends increasing activities that promote social cohesion and sensitization among
women to reduce their vulnerability to harmful traditional practices.
Keywords: social cohesion, traditional harmful cultural practices, gender-based violence, social justice,
sustainable development, community development.
INTRODUCTION
The increasing and persistent challenges of women in developing nations are largely traceable to the
patriarchal system, which has consistently denied women social justice within the family, traditional,
and social institutions (Ademiluka, 2018; Okafor, 2020; Parpan, 2011). Patriarchy as socially induced
gender inequality involves more of inherent feelings and capacity in men to see women as property
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 79
and subordinate rather than equal beings. This has been a prevalent orientation among men in
developing nations, such as Nigeria. A considerable amount of effort has been dedicated
internationally and locally to liberate women from harmful practices resulting from the overarching
patriarchal system. The efforts so far included the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Article 5(a) of CEDAW enjoins states to eradicate all social
and cultural barriers that lead to subjecting women to abuse (Committee on the Elimination of
Discrimination Against Women, 2015). Currently, United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15
(targets 1 and 2), which addresses the multidimensional harms against women and girls resulting from
gender-based discrimination, serves as a strategic policy to curb the plight of women globally. In
Nigeria, since 1988, policies and acts of parliament have explicitly criminalized both overt and covert
patriarchal activities harmful to women’s health and well-being through the 1988 and 1998 National
Health Policies and Strategies, the 1994 Maternal and Child Health Policy, the 1998 Policy on the
Elimination of FGM, the 1994 Breastfeeding Policy, the 2006 National Gender Policy, as well as the
2015 Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act (Ayanleye, 2013).
In spite of the multiple tools for fighting gender-based violence against women in Nigeria, some
studies suggest that disintegration and polarization of agenda among women’s organizations and
feminist circles have persistently hindered women from making appropriate use of these
opportunities and empowerment (Ette & Akpan-Obong, 2023; Tamale, 2020; Toyo & Adegbeye,
2021). The division along the line of ideology (feminism and womanism) has invariably divided the
strength and force with which women's organizations would have surmounted the challenges of
gender inequality. Due to the division along lines of womanism and feminism, women are not united
on which ideology to support with their resources, making them look confused and powerless in the
African contexts. For instance, from colonial Nigeria to postcolonial Nigeria, women have shown
resilience against subjugation, which has resulted in pockets of achievements. However, these
actions, demonstrated in different women’s gatherings such as the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), focusing on different issues of gender
inequality, have sadly not been sustained (Adesina, 2020; Bouka, 2020; Committee on the Elimination
of Discrimination Against Women, 2015). This unsustained engagement has created consistent
loopholes that perpetuate men’s domination in government, local communities, and the family circle
(Dosekun, 2022; Okafor, 2020; Toyo & Adegbeye, 2021).
For instance, women fought alongside men against the colonialists in different parts of Africa and
equally organized themselves in some other settings to independently resist the colonial forces in
places such as Aba in eastern Nigeria around 1929. However, women are still collectively subjugated
and continue to face domestic violence in their marital homes. This has been attributed to the rising
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 80
and falling of women's collective engagement against the common enemy, which is the patriarchal
system with overarching influence, causing division and isolated attacks on women's rights, especially
in rural communities. This rising and falling of collective engagement by women is further connected
to the dividing line of feminist interest and womanism (Abdul et al., 2011; Akinbobola, 2020).
While feminist interest in this context projects the overall engagement of women with their total
freedom from every form of domination and interference with their rights (Mama, 1995; Nkealah,
2016), womanism is an African-oriented ideology which maintains some liberality and differentiates
the needs of women in the Global South from those of women in the Global North (Dagunduro &
Adenugba, 2020; Toyo & Adegbeye, 2021). In such a context, while feminism in its entirety
discourages full participation of women who are more connected to African culture, the movement
has not been successful in Africa, given that the majority of the women population perceive it as alien
to the African system. In any case, womanism, which is relatively unpopular due to its mixed
ideological framework, attracts many women wherever it is successfully established. Meanwhile, the
ideological divide between womanism and feminism creates sharp enmity among women, affecting
their ability to win the war against women's subjugation enshrined in patriarchy. Literature has largely
explored division as tactics employed by the postcolonial Nigerian patriarchal system in the control
and domination of women, which has eventually put women at political, religious, and economic
disadvantage, resulting in the sustainability of harmful cultural practices against women (Kagher,
Metcalfe, & Otaye‐Ebede, 2021; Oluwole, 2014). Despite these observed challenges that have
undermined the unity of women, there is limited information on the power of social cohesion in
uniting and empowering women against harmful cultural practices in developing societies.
Notwithstanding the rate of global civilization, harmful cultural practices against women persist in
sub-Saharan Africa, manifesting in different dimensions with some level of complexity (United
Nations, 2019). Many harmful cultural practices in other parts of the world have given way to
civilization. However, they still hold sway in places like Nigeria. For instance, female genital mutilation,
widowhood practices, the preference for a male child over a female, and other indicators of harmful
practices against women are still ongoing in many local communities in Nigeria (Odo et al., 2020; Onah
et al., 2023). In Nigeria, these practices operate covertly in rural communities due to a lack of cohesion
among women in confronting gender-based practices. Sadly, there is a dearth of studies on social
cohesion and harmful cultural practices against women and girls, proximity factors, and rural
population access to specialized NGOs for effective intervention.
Harmful cultural practices come in multidimensional patterns, exploiting women’s vulnerability as
they lack socio-political standing in traditional institutional structures (Agbalajobi, 2017; Oguadimma
et al., 2021). Hence, women face a number of challenges associated with social injustice in power,
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 81
recognition, harmony, inclusion, and wellbeing (Fraser, 1997; Powers & Faden, 2006, 2019; Pratt,
2023; Young, 2000). These dimensions of social injustice have kept women in perpetual subjugation
such that, in rural communities in Nigeria, women are technically excluded from institutional
structures, which has heavy implications for their existence. The strategies used to maintain male
dominance reflect the modern society development model, helping sustain complex relationships
between traditional institutions and institutionalized gender-sensitive practices (Bouchama et al.,
2018). There is also a fluid network used to trap urban dwellers in the system, cloaked in the concept
of ‘expected traditional and communal responsibilities’. Hence, women travel long distances from
urban communities to their rural communities of origin to meet these traditional responsibilities,
which are harmful practices against women and girls (Okafor, 2020).
Harmful cultural practices among rural dwellers in developing nations are enduring phenomena,
interacting with factors such as marriage, socioeconomic status, exacerbated gender inequality, and
multidimensional deprivation. These practices target women from childhood throughout their
lifetime, from family to communal settings (Gebre et al., 2020; Glover, Liebling, & Barrett, 2018;
Ikeaba et al., 2022; UNICEF, 2022). They are embedded in traditional and religious institutions across
generations and have become household practices, especially in rural areas (Bartelink, le Roux,
&Levinga, 2017; Omoniyi, 2020).
With increasing public awareness, women in different segments and capacities are pushing against
harmful cultural practices (Amoo et al., 2019; Baştuğ et al., 2016; Dau, 2024; Panthi, 2020; Quicke &
Winter, 1994). However, these efforts are often disintegrated and encounter formidable obstacles
from overarching patriarchal structures. Challenges are aggravated by the legal system within Nigeria
and other developing nations, which often prevents justice for women against culturally induced
crimes. This discourages women from seeking justice (Olusegun & Oyelade, 2022). Factors
contributing to this include corruption in the judiciary, numerical disproportion against women in
judicial positions, poor solidarity networks among women, and taboos surrounding women seeking
justice against family or local communities. Despite limited successes by the women’s liberation and
feminist movement in Nigeria, little scholarly attention has been devoted to understanding the impact
of social cohesion on women’s efforts to achieve liberation in gender-sensitive environments such as
rural Nigeria.
Social cohesion, as a social concept with social indicators, involves individual members’ engagement
with seemingly compatible social groups in various settings (Chan, To, & Chan, 2006; Esse, 2021;
Moustakas, 2023; Sommer, 2019). In rural communities, where communities operate in sub-social
organizations connected to major traditional institutions, social cohesion is particularly salient
(Bottoni & Addeo, 2024; Manole, 2012; Williams et al., 2020). Social cohesion has proven to be a
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 82
substantive instrument for individual and collective wellbeing (Agadullina & Lavelina, 2023; Bottoni &
Addeo, 2024 Chuang, Chuang, & Yang, 2013; Lai, Zhou, & Yuan, 2021; Orazani et al., 2023). Among
individuals and groups maintaining ties of social cohesion, there are indicators of adaptation to
challenges and management of multiple wellbeing-related issues (Ichiro & Berkman, 2015; Miller et
al., 2020). Studies worldwide demonstrate the power of social cohesion in alleviating women’s plight
(Adetunji et al., 2023; Andrzejczak, 2017; Peterson & Hughey, 2004; Poix et al., 2022), including in
developing nations (Feng et al., 2021). However, studies in Africa remain limited and often
constrained by narrow datasets and focus (Ahmad et al., 2023; Burchi et al., 2022; Chan et al., 2006;
Pervaiz et al., 2023). No study has yet focused specifically on social cohesion and traditional harmful
practices against women in local communities of developing nations such as Southeast Nigeria, a
region with a complex history of gender-based violence, traditional practices, and community-based
cultural injustices against women and girls (Alordiah et al., 2022; Nwagu et al., 2017; Okedo-Alex et
al., 2021; Udoh et al., 2020; Chika & Umejiaku, 2014). Hence, there a need for a study on social
cohesion and its relationship with traditional harmful cultural practices against women in the region.
The objectives of the study
- To examine the relationship between social cohesion and women’s vulnerability to harmful
cultural practices in rural southeast Nigeria.
- To examine the factors contributing to women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices in
rural southeast Nigeria.
- To examine factors that influence women’s participation in social cohesion activities in rural
southeast Nigeria
Study Hypotheses
- There is a negative correlation between social cohesion and women’s vulnerability to harmful
cultural practices in rural communities.
-
Women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices is predicted by other factors such as
religion, the woman’s relationship with her husband’s extended family members, the number
of her children in marriage, preference for male child, distance from the nearby urban area,
how many years spent in marriage, education, participation in social cohesion activities and
quality of employment and skill.
-
Women’s involvement in communal social cohesion activities in rural communities is
predicted by such factors as education, age, how many years spent in marriage, perceived
benefits of community-based organizations, past experience of traditional harmful practices
against women and participation in gender sensitization programs.
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 83
METHOD
Design
Cross-sectional study.
Participants
The study took place in southeast Nigeria, which is made up of five administrative states, multiple
local councils and communities. Southeast Nigeria is home to the Igbo ethnic group, which makes up
about 24% of the Nigerian population. The Igbo ethnic group is rich in cultural diversity, which in most
cases limits women from participating in different activities. The study focused on women in different
community-based organizations. Basically, in southeast Nigerian rural communities, there are
organizations that unite women in different communities and for different purposes. However, these
women are structurally connected to their community's traditional institutions.
Following the traditional structures of the rural communities in the region, women associate
themselves with socioeconomic associations operating as quasi-cooperative societies, although these
associations are informal, without official registration or a structured membership system. While the
membership of some of these associations is limited to a single community, others are
intercommunity in nature and allow other women from different communities, provided they meet
the membership criteria. The community women's associations are registered with the local
government authorities to formalize their existence.
The study randomly selected 65 out of the 162 community-based associations in different
socioeconomic and community development activities. They were analyzed using a simple random
sampling (balloting) technique. Although there are many community-based organisations in the
region, the ones officially registered with the government institutions are usually chosen as away of
recognizing community-based associations in the area. This is because of the rate of organisational
fraud, which has affected the trust and integrity of some community-based associations.
The study applied for the list of registered community-based associations in order to maintain an
appropriate guide for the study in terms of sampling strategy. The study utilized 40.1% of the entire
sampling frame, which is the 65 out of 162 confirmed registered community-based women’s
association. After randomization, which ensured proper representation of the registered association,
the study introduced a purposive sampling technique to consider the uniqueness of the different
community-based women's associations, which are relatively heterogeneous. The associations have
unique characteristics in terms of population, locations and other socio-demographic markers.
Applying purposive sampling, the study selected at least 16 respondents from each of the randomly
selected 65 community-based associations specializing in different socioeconomic and community
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 84
development activities. This was guided by such criteria as how many years the women have been in
the association, how many years they have been in marriage, how many years they have lived in the
rural community, etc. Selecting at least 16 respondents from each chosen association was based on
the government agency’s registration requirement that each association must have a minimum of 35
members to qualify as an association. Nonetheless, in selecting the 16 respondents from each of the
associations included in the study, the study considered four factors important such as leadership
experience in the association, years in marriage, evidence of past or present experience of harmful
cultural practices and active participation in social activities in the community. These factors are
important to the study since they are strongly connected to the issues that the study addressed.
The study applied both purposive sampling and snowball techniques in locating the desired category
of individuals in these associations for the administration of the instrument.
Instruments
The instrument of data collection was developed following Peterson and Hughey's (2004) scale on
social cohesion, which was derived from Speer and Peterson 's (2000 four-measure scale and other
relevant scales to the study. The study modified the scale to capture the interest of the study and the
population understudy, who are married women in community-based organizations. Essentially, the
study aligned its variables of interest with scale items designed to capture culturally relevant factors,
enabling effective data collection and a thorough understanding of the study’s issues.
Community participation was measured with a four-point Likert-type scale, which included 8items
asking the respondents to indicate the frequency of their involvement in community action activities
in the last 6months.
Organizational membership was measured with questions requesting the participants to indicate if
they were members of community-based associations such as women's cooperative societies,
community women's associations, and faith-based women's associations.
Organizational involvement was measured with a four-point Likert-type scale, asking the participants
to indicate the frequency of their participation in community organizations during the last 6 months.
Connectedness was measured with a 12-item sense of community scale, measuring emotional
connection, reinforcement of needs, membership and influence. This was designed on a five-point
Likert-type scale. The modified scale was tested in a pilot study involving 140 members of the
community-based association randomly selected. The Cronbach’s for the participation scale was
0.81;organisational membership0.78; organizational involvement 0.82; Connectedness 0.89.
The social cohesion scale was used to measure only social cohesion as a variable in the study. Social
cohesion scale in its four dimensions has been validated and its reliability affirmed by other studies,
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 85
such as Martínez-Martínez et al. (2019).
Exposure to traditional harmful practices against women as a variable in the study was measured with
a four-point Likert-type scale [exposure to traditional harmful practices against women scale-
ETHPAW] developed by the researchers. The scale asked the participants about the frequency of their
exposure to harmful cultural practices in the last 12 months [from ‘not at all’ to ‘often times’]. These
indicators included widowhood practices, marital sexual slavery, food taboos, domestic violence
against wives, etc. This was also tested for validation through a pilot study; the Cronbach's alpha result
was 0.71.
How many years spent in marriage among the women as a variable was measured with an ordinal
scale, which asked the women to indicate how many years they have lasted in their marriage, such as
between one and five years, more than five but not more than ten years, between 11 and 15 years
and more than 16 years.
The relationship with the extended family members was measured with an ordinal scale, which asked
the women to indicate how well the relationship with their husband’s extended family, rating from 1-
5, with 1=very bad and 5=very excellent.
Son preference was measured with a four-point Likert-type scale (strongly disagree-strongly agree),
which asked the women if their husband and the family of their husband maltreated them because of
not having a male child.
The number of children in marriage among the women was measured with an ordinal scale, which
asked the women to indicate how many children they have in their marriage, such as between one
and three children, four to six , seven or more children.
Quality of employment and skill as a variable in the study were measured with a 23-item sense of
Work-Related Quality of Life (WRQoL) Scale by Van Laar, Edwards and Easton (2007). This is a 23-item
psychometric scale used to gauge the perceived quality of life of employees as measured through six
psychosocial sub-factors. It measures the quality of working life. This was designed in a five-point
Likert-type scale (strongly disagree-strongly agree); while the scale was tested and modified to suit
the rural setting where the study was carried out. The Cronbach’s result after the pilot study was 0.81.
Location distance from the nearby urban area was measured with questions asking the participants to
indicate approximately how many kilometers between their community and the nearby urban centers.
Summarily, the instrument developed for the study was validated in two stages, such as face validation
by four experts in gender studies, sociology, psychology and community development studies; while
the second stage of validation was a pilot study involving 140 women from the community-based
associations included in the study.
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 86
Procedure
The instrument of data collection was administered to the respondents via the association's monthly
meetings. In the absence of monthly meetings held during the time of the study, there was house-to-
house visitation following the lists provided by the association leaders. This was done with the aid of
research assistants.
Ethical issues
The study observed ethical issues as they concern the respondents of the study. First of all, the
researchers obtained ethical clearance from the University of Nigeria’s ethical committee before going
for field data collection. Secondly, the research assistants were trained on the nature of the
instrument and extant human research ethics and how to approach the respondents for their consent
to participate in the study. The research assistants were thoroughly supervised in the field to protect
the respondents from any form of right abuse. As such, all the participants in the study gave their
consent, obtained by the researchers. More importantly, the agreement to keep the study and the
data confidential was maintained to protect the women who participated in the study.
Data analysis
The collected data were analysed with the aid of SPSS version 23. The collected data were analyzed
using descriptive and inferential statistics, giving attention to the major thrust of the study by adopting
two specific models in testing the relationship of the interesting variables, such as Spearman’s rho
Correlations and Linear model. At the first stage of the analysis, the socio-demographic data of the
respondents and other substantive issues of the study were presented in percentages (%). The
application of this statistics was to enable potential readers to easily capture the patterns of the data.
This was followed by the correlation analyses of the relationship of substantive variables to answer
the research questions guiding the study. This was executed with Spearman’s rho Correlations with a
P-value of 0.01 and 1-tail, focusing on the effect size. Spearman correlation statistics were chosen
because of the nature of the data tested, which is neither on a continuous scale nor a nominal scale,
but on an ordinal scale. Equally, 1-tail was selected to narrow the focus of the statistics for a specific
result. These affected the analysis by providing the study with precise results. The third stage of the
analysis is to answer the question on the predicting factors to women’s vulnerability to harmful
cultural practices and the factors that influence their participation in social cohesion activities were
carried out with Linear regression, which explored the relationship of the key variables on this, with
more focus on the direction of the relationship between the selected variables. Linear regression was
chosen to test the predicting factors of women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices because
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 87
the data for the variable was collected on an ordinal scale, which is best analysed using a linear model.
A multiple linear regression analysis was conducted using the enter method in SPSS, inputting all
independent variables into the regression equation simultaneously, and allowing the software to
assess each variable's unique contribution to predicting the dependent variable.
The explanatory variables in the equation include relationship with the husband’s extended family
members, number of children in marriage, preference for male child, distance from the nearby urban
area, how many years spent in marriage, education, social cohesion, quality of employment and skill,
perceived benefits of community-based organizations, past experience with traditional harmful
practices against women and participation in gender sensitization program. The relationship between
the dependent variable and the explanatory variables is represented in the supplementary material 1.
The model followed the theoretical assumption of multiple linear regression, which assumes that y is
directly related to a linear combination of the explanatory variables. Also, the data outcome
assumptions of multiple linear regression, such as there are no outliers, the residuals are normally
distributed, the residuals are not related to the explanatory variables, and that the residuals are not
correlated with one another (Tranmer et al.,2020), were all observed in examining the data before
analysis. The Anderson-Darling test was conducted to assess whether the data were normally
distributed. The Anderson-Darling statistic (A²) was calculated as 1.19. The p-value was 0.76 (0.76 >
0.05), which suggested that the data were normally distributed.
RESULTS
The study involved 1,098 respondents, of whom 62.6% were Christians, 5.9% were Muslims, and
31.1% were adherents of African Traditional Religion. The majority of respondents (47.4%) held a high
school qualification, 10.3% held a diploma, while 26.7% held a Higher National Diploma or a degree.
Only 10.7% of the respondents were below 24 years of age, 16.3% were between 24 and 29 years,
15.9% were between 30 and 35 years, 15.0% were between 36 and 41 years, 15.9% were between 42
and 47 years, 15.8% were between 48 and 53 years, and 10.4% were 54 years or older. The mean age
of respondents was 36.7 years (SD = 0.830). Regarding marital status, 15.9% of respondents had been
married between one and five years, 26.3% for more than five but not more than ten years, 37.0%
between 11 and 15 years, and 20.8% for 16 years or more.
The correlation between social cohesion and women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices was
examined using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. With a p-value of < .001, the result was
significant [Rho(1098) = –.407, p < .001], indicating a significant negative relationship between social
cohesion and women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices. Furthermore, the results suggest
that strengthening women’s engagement in social cohesion protects them against harmful cultural
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 88
practices in rural communities.
Table 1.
Coefficients of women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices in rural southeast Nigeria
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
T
Sig.
Beta
Std. Error
Beta
Tolerance
VIF
1
(Constant)
1.675
.138
12.152
<0.001
Religion
0.293
0.015
0.611
18.911
<0.001
0.672
1.488
Education
-0.097
0.039
-0.169
-2.468
0.01
0.351
2.847
Age
0.372
0.030
1.371
12.290
<0.001
0.110
9.093
How many years spent in marriage
-1.018
0.066
-1.827
-15.529
<0.001
0.137
7.299
The relationship with the husband’s
extended family members
0.135
0.025
0.208
5.408
<0.001
0.300
3.339
Male child preference
0.725
0.029
1.073
24.922
<0.001
0.380
2.635
Number of children in marriage
0.131
0.031
0.174
4.211
<0.001
0.431
2.319
Social cohesion
-0.655
0.041
-0.575
-16.062
<0.001
0.419
2.386
Quality of employment and skill
-0.228
0.025
-0.473
-9.114
<0.001
0.701
1.427
Distance from the nearby urban area
0.568
0.059
0.517
9.579
<0.001
0.522
1.917
R= 0.922; R2= 0.850
The explanatory power of the model, showed in table 1, according to the R2 is 0.850, indicating the
strength of the model. All the included variables were significantly correlated with the dependent
variable. All the included variables in the model are subjects of interest in the explanation and
understanding of the women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices. According to the model
results, for every 1-unit increase in the quality of the relationship with the husband’s extended family
members, there is a 0.135-unit increase in women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices (b =
0.135, t = 5.408). For every 1-unit increase in the number of children in the marriage, there is a
corresponding 0.131-unit increase in women’s vulnerability (b = 0.131, t = 4.211). Furthermore, for
each 1-unit increase in male child preference, there is a 0.725-unit increase in vulnerability to harmful
cultural practices in rural communities (b = 0.725, t = 24.922). Similarly, for every 1-unit increase in
distance from the nearest urban area, there is a 0.568-unit increase in vulnerability (b = 0.568, t =
9.579).
However, for every 1-unit increase in the number of years spent in marriage, there is a corresponding
1.018-unit decrease in women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices (b = –1.018, t = -15.529).
Likewise, for every 1-unit increase in women’s educational qualification, there is a 0.097-unit decrease
in vulnerability (b = –0.097, t = –2.468). For every 1-unit increase in women’s engagement in social
cohesion, there is a 0.655-unit decrease in vulnerability (b = –0.655, t = –16.062). Finally, each 1-unit
increase in the quality of employment and skills among women results in a 0.228-unit decrease in
vulnerability (b = –0.228, t = –9.114). Overall, age, years spent in marriage, and male child preference
contributed the most to explaining women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices.
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 89
Table2
Coefficients of factors to women’s involvementin communal social cohesion activitiesin rural southeast Nigeria
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
T
Sig.
B
Std. Error
Beta
Tolerance
VIF
1
(Constant)
0.297
0.094
3.165
0.002
Religion
-0.159
0.013
-0.392
-12.656
<0.001
0.687
1.455
Education
0.019
0.023
0.040
0.850
<0.001
0.363
2.753
Age
0.347
0.021
1.514
16.808
<0.001
0.119
8.432
How many years spent in marriage
0.972
0.049
2.063
19.988
<0.001
0.158
6.334
The quality of the relationship in marriage
-0.412
0.022
-0.594
-18.531
<0.001
0.304
3.284
Perceived benefits of community-based
organizations
0.242
0.018
0.379
13.275
<0.001
0.463
2.158
Past experience with traditional harmful
practices against women
0.508
0.031
0.528
16.567
<0.001
0.604
1.657
Participation ina gender sensitization program
0.483
0.037
0.722
12.990
<0.001
0.504
1.985
R= 0.965; R2= 0.932
The above model, showed in table 2, explained the factors that draw women to communal social
cohesion. From the table, the included variables in the model explained the associated factors of social
cohesion among the women. From the model, for every 1-unit increase in women’s educational
qualification, there is a corresponding 0.019-unit increase in women’s involvement in community
social cohesion activities (b = 0.019, t = 0.850). For every 1-unit increase in women’s age, there is a
0.347-unit increase in their involvement in communal social cohesion activities (b = 0.347, t = 16.808).
For every 1-unit increase in the number of years spent in marriage, there is a 0.972-unit increase in
women’s involvement in communal social cohesion activities (b = 0.972, t = 19.988).
Furthermore, for every 1-unit increase in the perceived benefits of community-based organizations,
there is a 0.242-unit increase in women’s involvement in communal social cohesion activities (b =
0.242, t = 13.275). Similarly, for every 1-unit increase in past experiences with traditional harmful
practices against women, there is a 0.508-unit increase in involvement (b = 0.508, t = 16.567). Finally,
for every 1-unit increase in women’s participation in gender sensitization programs, there is a 0.483-
unit increase in their involvement in communal social cohesion activities (b = 0.483, t = 12.990).
Overall, age and years spent in marriage contributed the most to explaining women’s willingness to
engage in social cohesion activities.
DISCUSSION
Harmful traditional cultural practices against women and girls persist as a major social justice issue in
rural sub-Saharan Africa even after several interventions by the government and nongovernmental
organizations (Abebe et al., 2021; Amoo et al., 2019; Dau, 2024; Gebre et al., 2020; Glover et al., 2018;
Jimoh et al., 2018; Msuya, 2019). However, this study builds upon existing research by specifically
examining the role of social cohesion in combating harmful cultural practices against women and girls
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 90
in rural communities. As observed in this study, religion, relationship with the husband’s extended
family members, and male child preference contribute to make women vulnerable to harmful cultural
practices. This finding confirmed that religion weakens women's resistance against gender-based
violence according to earlier studies (Amoo et al., 2019; Gebrekirstos et al., 2014). The husband’s
extended family often acts as a microcosm of broader societal structures, initiating and enforcing
harmful cultural practices. In these contexts, married women and girls are frequently perceived as
property, reinforcing their vulnerability.
The studies by Dau (2024), Banda and Atansah (2016), and Okafor et al. (2022) equally proved that
family structure in developing societies contributes to the resilience of harmful cultural practices
against women. Male child preference has also been found by other studies as responsible for gender-
based violence against women (Abebe et al., 2021; Elmusharaf et al., 2017). All these factors are
interwoven with the five dimensions of social justice, such as power, recognition, harmony, inclusion,
and well‐being, which are dominated and manipulated by patriarchal norms in society(Fraser, 1997;
Okafor, 2018; Powers & Faden, 2019; Pratt, 2023; Young, 2000).
The study captured the distance of the rural communities from the nearest urban communities and
discovered a positive correlation between distance from urban communities and women’s
vulnerability to harmful cultural practices. The distance from urban areas was included due to the
impact of underdevelopment in rural communities, which is both quantitatively and qualitatively felt
by inhabitants. The rural communities are the most difficult areas to implement certain laws and
policies in Nigeria. In many cases, there exists a significant gap between the governmental institutions
concentrated in urban centers and the rural communities where enforcement is weak. Moreover,
government policies and orders are not easily respected in rural areas, as traditional institutions—
often patriarchal in structure—retain significant influence (Daka & Tamira, 2019; Zadawa & Omran,
2020). This equally shows the reason why most of the women and feminist movements in Nigeria are
relatively ineffective, owing to the fact that they are mainly concentrated in the urban areas. The
dominance of traditional institutions in rural communities, which often follow patriarchal norms,
limits women's ability to challenge harmful practices, especially those considered taboo(Olusegun &
Oyelade, 2022). The above finding invariably explains the other finding between education and
women’s vulnerability to harmful cultural practices. The finding demonstrated that women’s
vulnerability to harmful cultural practices is negatively correlated with education.
Meanwhile, social cohesion was also negatively correlated with the women’s vulnerability(rho -.407
P.01). Other studies have shown the resilience of social cohesion in the resistance against gender-
based violence (Mauwa, Kaye & Mukwege, 2022; Perrin et al., 2019). Importantly, this study reveals
that social cohesion accounts for 16.6% of the variance in women’s resilience against harmful
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 91
practices, highlighting its significant role in policy and intervention planning. This, by implication,
offers a new direction for tackling harmful cultural practices against women in rural communities,
especially with regard to the aspirations of women and feminist organizations in Nigeria and other
developing nations to eradicate harmful cultural practices. In any case, channeling adult education
programs and the women's liberation agenda towards encouraging social cohesion and reaching out
through the lens of social cohesion, such as community-based organizations will eventually build a
formidable force against harmful traditional cultural practices against women. Equally, the study
found that education, age, how many years spent in marriage, perceived benefits of community-based
organizations, past experience with traditional harmful practices against women and participation in
gender sensitization programs all predicted identification with organizations that drive social
cohesion. In any case, these factors are propellant to engagement with social cohesion-related
activities. Education in its multiple dimensions does empower women for more determination in
resisting gender-based violence (Villardón-Gallego et al., 2023; Puigvert et al., 2019; Burke et al.,
2023).
The perceived benefits of community-based organizations in the present study point to the
functionality of the community-based associations in meeting the needs of women in the community.
Among the community-based organizations, women become members with specific objectives,
especially where membership is optional. As obtainable in this region, community-based women's
associations are built around socioeconomic empowerment for women, hence they become attractive
to women, especially those marrying newly into the communities in question. This is connected to
experiences with cultural practices in the community of marriage and women's sensitization on
gender equality, which inspire and empower women to utilize the available options in tackling their
challenges.
Harmful cultural practices among the women in rural southeast Nigeria are still in operation, but in
diverse ways. While other interventions earlier have suppressed the problem, there is still a need to
understand the tentacles of the problem and its resilience, as well as the factors of countermeasures
embedded in the women's population in dealing with the situation. And, these factors have been
found in this study as social cohesion and community-based women empowerment, with a focus on
the community-based women's organizations. Social cohesion, as one of the factors strongly
countering harmful cultural practices against women in this study, ought to be promoted among the
women in the rural communities. This can be done through incentives to community-based women's
associations supported by a gender sensitization program. Although most of these associations show
potential for protecting women in the communities, low awareness and economic interests deny
women empowerment against gender-based violence. As such, incentives and awareness campaigns
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 92
by interested institutions among these associations can go a long way in helping the women out of
the problem. This can be translated into a policy strategy by incorporating regular sensitization to
registration protocols for community-based women's associations.
This study has demonstrated from the rural communities in Nigeria, the power of social cohesion
among the rural women in confronting some age-long practices hampering their freedom and rights.
By implication, the study in its kind has demonstrated in the ongoing global debate, the possibility of
confronting gender-based violence against women by women in their formation. More so, the study,
applying complex procedure has established the understanding of gender-based violence against
women and the possible strategies in dealing with such. Meanwhile, the study despite achieving the
objectives set out by the study, is fraught with some limitations. Among other things, the study did
not use sufficient sample size that can enable it generalize the findings. Also, the high VIF values for
the variables age and years of marriage, which indicate multicollinearity in the regression models.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The researchers obtained ethical clearance from the University of Nigeria’s ethical committee before
going for field data collection. Secondly, the research assistants were trained on the nature of the
instrument and extant human research ethics and how to approach the respondents for their consent
to participate in the study. The research assistants were thoroughly supervised in the field to protect
the respondents from any form of right abuse. As such, all the participants in the study gave their
consent, obtained by the researchers. More importantly, the agreement to keep the study and the
data confidential was maintained to protect the women who participated in the study.
AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS
Anonymized dataset is available. They can be requested by consulting the author at the following
email: asogu.ogbonnaya@unn.edu.ng
DECLARATION OF GENERATIVE AI AND AI-ASSISTED TECHNOLOGIES IN THE WRITING PROCESS
The authors declare that there was no form of AI assistance in this study, as every aspect of the study
is the hard work of the authors.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
There is no type of conflict of interest on the part of the authors of the text.
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 93
FINANCING
The research does not have direct monetary funding. However, this project was possible through the
selfless collaboration of all the authors, who spent their resources to meet the needs of the research.
AUTHORS' CONTRIBUTIONS
MFO has contributed to the article in its conceptualization, OC data curation, OE formal analysis,
research, ON&IN methodology, UN project administration, OS writing - original draft, OK writing -
review and editing of the article.
REFERENCES
Abdul, M.M., Adeleke, O., Adeyeye, O., Babalola, A., Eyo, E., Ibrahim, M.T., &Onose, M. (2011).
Analysis of the history, organizations and challenges of feminism in Nigeria. Nawey Nigerian
Group. Academy of Management Perspectives, 18(3), 136-139.
Abebe, H., Beyene, G.A., &Mulat, B.S. (2021). Harmful cultural practices during the perinatal period
and associated factors among women of childbearing age in southern Ethiopia: Community-
based cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 16(7), e0254095.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254095
Ademiluka, O. (2018). Patriarchy and women abuse: Perspectives from ancient Israel and Africa. OTE,
31(2), 339–362. https://doi.org/10.17159/2310-3833/2018/v31n2a9
Adesina, O.A. (2020). Women and colonialism across Africa. In O. Yacob-Haliso& T. Falola (Eds.), The
Palgrave handbook of African women's studies. Palgrave Macmillan.
Adetunji, A., Silva, M., Tulsiani, N. J., &Adediran, M. (2023). Like a broom tied together: A qualitative
exploration of social cohesion and its role in community capacity strengthening to support
integrated health in Nigeria. PLOS Global Public Health, 3(10), e0002508.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0002508
Afolabi, C.Y. (2019). The invisibility of women’s organizations in decision-making process and
governance in Nigeria. Frontiers in Sociology, 3, 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2018.00003
Agadullina, E.R., &Lavelina, D. I. (2023). The contribution of system justification to social cohesion.
Social Psychology and Society, 14(4), 89–104.
Agbalajobi, D.T. (2017). A historical perspective of women participation in politics. Ife Social Sciences
Review, 25(2), 33–47.
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 94
Ahmad, N., Ghouse, G., Bhatti, M. I., & Aslam, A. (2023). The impact of social inclusion and financial
development on CO2 emissions: Panel analysis from developing countries. Sustainability, 15,
1234.
Akinbobola,Y. (2020). Defining African feminism(s) while #beingfemale in Nigeria. African
Diaspora, 12(1-2), 64-88.
Alordiah C.O., F.C. Omumu, H. I. Owamah, O. Chenube, I. E. Okokoyo, M. A. Osagiede& Agbajor, H.
T.(2022). Socio-cultural norms encouraging violence against women (VAW) from a
popular ethnic group in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria and the roles of schools in preventing
VAW.Cogent Social Sciences, 8:1, 2102299, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2102299
Amoo, E.O., Olawole-Isaac, A., Ajayi, M. P., Adekeye, O., Ogundipe, O., Olawande, O., & Ogundipe,
A. (2019). Are there traditional practices that affect men’s reproductive health in sub-Saharan
Africa?. A systematic review and meta-analysis approach. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1).
Andrzejczak, K. (2017). Social cohesion in African countries. The role of remittances and the size of the
welfare state. Problems of Social Policy (38), 13-34.
AyanleyeO.O. (2013). Women and reproductive health rights in Nigeria. OIDA International
Journal of Sustainable Development 6(5), 127–140.
Bartelink, B., le Roux, E., &Levinga, W. (2017). Harmful traditional practices in the context of faith: A
literature Review: Part of the UK Government-funded ‘Working effectively with faith leaders
to challenge harmful traditional practices'. Tearfund, https://jliflc.com/resources/no-harmful-
traditional-practices-working-effectively-faith-leader/
Baştuğ, O., Korkmaz, L., Korkut, S., Halis, H., Güneş, T., &Kurtoğlu, S. (2016). A harmful traditional
practice in newborns with adrenocorticotropic hormone resistance syndrome: branding. Turk
PediatriArsivi, 51(4), 224–227.
Banda, J., & Atansah, P. (2016). An Agenda for Harmful Cultural Practices and Girls’ Empowerment.
Center for Global Development. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep39944
Bottoni, G.& Addeo, F. (2024). The effect of social cohesion on subjective individual quality of life in
european countries. Soc Indic Res, 171, 1111–1133
Bouchama,N. Ferrant, G.,Fuiret, L., Meneses, A. &Thim, A.(2018). Gender inequality in West
African social institutions. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/fe5ea0ca-en
Bouka, Y. (2020). Women, colonial resistance, and decolonization. In O. Yacob-Haliso & T.Falola (eds.)
The palgrave handbook of African women's studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.
Burchi, F., Loewe, M.,Malerba, D.& Leininger, J. (2022). Disentangling the relationship between
social protection and social cohesion: Introduction to the special issue. Eur J Dev Res, 34,
1195–1215
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 95
Burke, P.J., Coffey, J., Parker, J., Hardacre, S., Cocuzzoli, F., Shaw, J., &Haro, A. (2023). ‘It’s a lot of
shame’: understanding the impact of gender-based violence on higher education access and
participation. Teaching in Higher Education, 30(1), 116-131.
Chan, J., To, H.-P., & Chan, E. (2006). Reconsidering social cohesion: Developing a definition and
analytical framework for empirical research. Social Indicators Research, 75(2), 273–302.
Chika, I. S. &Umejiaku, N. (2014). Discriminatory cultural practices and women’s rights among the
Igbos of South-East Nigeria: A Critique. Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization, (25),18-27
Chuang, Y. C., Chuang, K. Y. & Yang, T. H. (2013). Social cohesion matters in health. Int J Equity
Health, 12, 87
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination AgainstWomen (2015).General recommendation
onwomen’s access to justice. https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%
Dagunduro, A. &Adenugba, A. (2020). Failure to meet up to expectation: Examining women’s activist
groups in the post-colonial period in Nigeria. Open Cultural Studies 4(1), 23-
35. https://doi.org/10.1515/culture-2020-0003
Daka, A. & Tamira, S. (2019). Rural Communities, Development Policies and Social Sciences Practice:
Advocacy for a Citizenship of Research in Sub-Saharan Africa. Open Journal ofSocial
Sciences, 7, 51-62. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2019.79005
Dau, S.A.L. (2024). International human rights standards versus cultural practices: a case against
harmful cultural practices in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a specific reference to FGM. Discov Glob
Soc, 2, 21
Dosekun, S. (2022). The problems and intersectional politics of “#BeingFemaleinNigeria”, Feminist
Media Studies, 23(4) 1429-1445. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2022.2030386
Elmusharaf, K., Byrne, E. & O’Donovan, D. (2017). Social and traditional practices and their implications
for family planning: a participatory ethnographic study in Renk, South Sudan. Reprod
Health 14,(10).
Esse, C. (2021). Construction of social cohesion and living together in the Cameroonian publicspace:
Differences of opinion versus the emergence of a common sense in discourse. Int.
J.Communications, Network and System Sciences, 14, 75-94.
Ette, M., & Akpan-Obong, P. (2023). Negotiating access and privilege: Politics of female participation
and representation in Nigeria. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 58(7), 1291-1306.
Feng, Z., Cramm, J. M., &Nieboer, A. P. (2021). Associations of social cohesion and socioeconomic
status with health behaviours among middle-Aged and older Chinese people. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4894.
Fraser, N. (1997). Justice interruptus critical reflections on the “postsocialist” condition. Routledge.
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 96
Gebre, T., Hagos, F.,Teklu, G.,Fisseha, M.&Abera, M. (2020). The prevalence of gender-based violence
and harmful traditional practices against women in the Tigray Region, Ethiopia. Journal of
Asian and African Studies, 55(1), 58–75
Gebrekirstos, K., Abebe, M. &Fantahun, A. A. (2014). Cross-sectional study on factors associated with
harmful traditional practices among children less than 5 years in Axumtown,north
Ethiopia, 2013. Reprod Health 11, (46)
Glover, J., Liebling, H.& Barrett, H. (2018). Persistence and resistance of harmful traditional practices
(HTPs) perpetuated against girls in Africa and Asia.Journal of International Women's
Studies, 19(2), 44-64
Ichiro, K. &Berkman, L. F. (2014). Social capital, social cohesion, and health. In L. F. Berkman, K. Ichiro
& M. M.Glymour (eds.), Social epidemiology, New York, Oxford Academic, 1 Mar.
2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780195377903.003.0008
Ikeaba, N. C., Balogun, M. R., Olubodun, T., & Okafor, I. (2022). Harmful traditional practices among
market women in Ojuwoye market Mushin, South West, Nigeria. Annals of African
medicine, 21(3), 208–216.
Jimoh, A. O., Adaji, S. E., Adelaiye, H., Olorukooba, A. A., Bawa, U., Ibrahim, H. I., Garba, C., Mfuh, A.
L., Idris, S., & Shittu, S. O. (2018). A cross-sectional study of traditional practices affecting
maternal and newborn health in rural Nigeria. The Pan African Medical Journal, 31, (64).
Kagher, L. A., Otaye‐Ebede, L., & Metcalfe, B. (2021). Black lives and bodywork matters: A postcolonial
critique of gender and embodiment in Nigeria. Gender, Work & Organization, 28(5), 1787–
1804.
Kimanu, M. J. (2021, 15-17 April). Children born from rape in the Democratic Republic of Congo: The
rise of community violence in post-conflict society. (Paper presentation). Kroc Institute.
Notre Dame/ USA.
Lai, S., Zhou, Y., & Yuan, Y. (2021). Associations between community cohesion and subjective wellbeing
of the elderly in Guangzhou, China. A cross-sectional study based on the structural equation
model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(3),
Mama, A. (1995). Feminism or femocracy? State feminism and democratisation in Nigeria.Africa
Development / Afrique et Développement, 20(1), 37-58.
Manole, A. M. (2012). Social cohesion – a post-crisis analysis.Theoretical and Applied Economics,
XIX(576), 127-134
Martínez, L., Lo, N. C., Cords, O., Hill, P. C., Khan, P., Hatherill, M., Mandalakas, A., Kay, A., Croda, J.,
Horsburgh, C. R., Zar, H. J., & Andrews, J. R. (2019). Paediatric tuberculosis transmission
outside the household: challenging historical paradigms to inform future public health
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 97
strategies. The Lancet. Respiratory medicine, 7(6), 544–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-
2600(19)30137-7
Mauwa, J.K., Kaye, S.B., Mukwege, D.M. (2022). Protecting and Nurturing Children Born from Rape in
South Kivu Communities: A Challenge for Civil Society. In: Kiyala, J.C.K., Harris, G.T. (eds) Civil
Society and Peacebuilding in Sub-Saharan Africa in the Anthropocene. The Anthropocene:
Politik—Economics—Society—Science, vol 34. Pp.397-419 Springer, Cham.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95179-5_17
Miller, H. N., Thornton, C. P., Rodney, T., Thorpe, R. J., Jr, & Allen, J. (2020). Social cohesion in health:
A Concept Analysis. ANS. Advances in Nursing Science, 43(4), 375–390.
Moustakas, L. (2023). Social cohesion: definitions, causes and consequences. Encyclopedia , 3,
1028-1037. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia3030075
Msuya, N. H. (2019). Concept of culture relativism and women’s rights in Sub-Saharan Africa.Journal
of Asian and African Studies 54(8) 1145–1158.
Nkealah, N. (2016). (West). African feminisms and their challenges. JLS/TLW 32(2),61-74
Nwagu, E. N. Dibia S. I. C.&Odo, A. N. (2017). Socio-cultural norms and roles in the use and abuse of
alcohol among members of a rural community in Southeast Nigeria, HealthEducation
Research, 32(5), 423–436
Odo A. N., Dibia, S. I. C., Nwagu, E. N., Umoke M. J. &Umoke P. C. I. (2020). Towards characterization
of female genital mutilation (FGM) in rural Nigeria. Afri Health Sci. 20(4)68-78.
OguadimmaI. J., NwakalorE.O.,&Ejinkeonye B. A. (2021). Factors that militate against women
participation in politics in Enugu State. Open Political Science, 4, 68–73
Okafor, S.O., Izueke, E.M.C., Okoye, E.O.,Chuke, N.U.,Kekeocha-Christopher, I.C., Okezi, O., Abdulrouf,
I.,&Udenze, C. (2022). Knowledge and perception of school social work services among
parents, teachers association (PTA) and its implication to community and sustainable
development in South-east Nigeria. Italian Journal of Sociology of Education, 14(2), 175-200.
Okafor, O. (2020). Patriarchy and women plight in Africa: The consequences of living in
passivity.Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology, 17(2), 57-74.
Okafor, S. O. (2018). The indigenous concept of sexuality in African tradition and globalization. Glob J
Reprod Med, 6(1).
Okedo-Alex, I. N., Akamike, I. C., Uneke, C. J., &Abateneh, D. D. (2021). Community attitudes towards
violence against women, and lived wxperiences of family violence and abuse during childhood
in rural Eastern Nigeria: Implications for policyandprogramming. Risk management and
healthcare policy, 14, 4983–4990.
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 98
Okongwu, O. C. (2021). Are laws the appropriate solution: The need to adopt non-policy measures in
aid of the implementation of sex discrimination laws in Nigeria. InternationalJournal of
Discrimination and the Law,21(1) 26–46
Olusegun, O. O., &Oyelade, O. S. (2022). Access to justice for Nigerian women: A veritable tool to
achieving sustainable development. International Journal of Discrimination and the Law,
22(1), 4-29.
Oluwole,O.E. (2014). The dynamics of women political emancipation and political participation in
Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 16(3), 99-112
Omoniyi, T. O. (2020). Appraisal of harmful traditional practices in Nigeria: magnitude, justifications
and interventions. Journal of Social, Humanity, and Education, 1(1), 67-78.
Onah, C. K.,Ossai, E. N., Nwachukwu, O. M., Nwankwo, G. E.,Mbam, H. O.&Azuogu, B. N. (2023).
Factors associated with the practice of and intention to perform female genital mutilation on
a female child among married women in Abakaliki, Nigeria. BMC Women's Health, 23(1), 376.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-023-02537-3
Orazani, N., Cárdenas, D., Reynolds, K. J., & Mendoza-Denton, R. (2023). Editorial: 'Divided or united':
strengthening social cohesion for well-being and prosperity. Frontiers in Psychology, 14,
Panthi, G. P. (2020, August19- 20). Midwifery Asia Pacific 2020, world congress on midwifery, maternal
health and gynecology. (Webinar), 2020. https://midwiferygynecology.insightconferences
Parpan, J. L. (2011). Gender, patriarchy, and development in Africa: The Zimbabwean case. In
M.M.Valentine (ed.), Patriarchy and development: Women's positions at the end of the
twentieth century. Oxford: Oxford Academic.
Perrin, N., Marsh, M., Clough, A.,Desgroppes, A., Phanuel, C. Y., Abdi, A.,Kaburu, F.,Heitmann, S.,
Yamashina, M., Ross, B., Read-Hamilton, S., Turner, R.,Heise, L.&Glass, N. (2019). Social norms
and beliefs about gender based violence scale: a measure for use with genderbased violence
prevention programs in low-resource and humanitarian settings. Confl Health 13, (6)
Pervaiz, Z., Akram, S., Ahmad Jan, S., & Chaudhary, A. R. (2023). Is gender equality conducive to
economic growth of developing countries? Cogent Social Sciences, 9(2).
Peterson, A. N. & Hughey, J. (2004). Social cohesion and intrapersonal empowerment: gender as
moderator. Health Education Research, 19(5), 533–542
Poix, S., Ibrahim, N., Scriver, S., Raghavendra, S., Duvvury, N., &Elmusharaf, K. (2022). Community
cohesion and violence against women in Ghana, Pakistan, and South Sudan: A secondary data
analysis. Women's health (London, England), 18, 17455057221123998.
https://doi.org/10.1177/17455057221123998
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 99
Powers, M., &Faden, R. (2006). Social justice: The moral foundations of public health and health policy.
Oxford University Press
Powers, M., &Faden, R. (2019). Structural injustice: Power, advantage, and human rights. Oxford
University Press.
Pratt, B. (2023). A multidimensionalaccount of social justice for global health research. Bioethics,37,
624–636.
Puigvert, L., Valls, R., Garcia Yeste, C., Aguilar, C., & Merrill, B. (2019). Resistance to and
transformations of gender-based violence in Spanish universities: A communicative
evaluation of social impact. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 13(3), 361-380.
Quicke, J.& Winter, C. (1994). Education, Cooperation and the Cultural Practices o Assertive
Girls.International Studies in Sociology of Education, 4(2), 173-190,
Sommer, C. (2019). Social cohesion and economic development: Unpacking the relationship. Briefing.
https://doi.org/10.23661/bp16.2019
Speer, P. W., & Peterson, N. A. (2000). Psychometric properties of an empowerment scale: Testing
cognitive, motional, and behavioral domains. Social Work Research, 24(2), 109–118.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/42659424
Tamale, S. (2020).Decolonization and Afro-Feminism. Ottawa:Daraja Press
Toyo, N.&Adegbeye, O. T. (2021). Are Different Generations of Nigerian Feminists Ready to Join
Forces? In M. Judge (ed.)African Feminisms Across Generations. Germany:Heinrich-Böll-
Stiftung
Tranmer, M., Murphy, J., Elliot, M., and Pampaka, M. (2020) Multiple Linear Regression (2nd Edition);
Cathie Marsh Institute Working Paper 2020-01.
Udoh, O. D., Folarin, S. F., Isumonah, V. A., &Amoo, E. O. (2020). The influence of religion and culture
on women’s rights to property in Nigeria. CogentArts& Humanities, 7(1).
UNICEF (2022). Harmful practices: Child marriage and female genital mutilation are internationally
recognized human rights violations. Geneva: United Nations publications.
United Nations (2019) UN Women Annual Report 2018-2019. Geneva: United Nations publications.
Van Laar, D., Edwards, J. A., & Easton, S. (2007). The Work-Related Quality of Life scale for healthcare
workers. Journal of advanced nursing, 60(3), 325–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
2648.2007.04409.x
Villardón-Gallego, L., García-Cid, A., Estévez, A., & García-Carrión, R. (2023). Early Educational
Interventions to Prevent Gender-Based Violence: A systematic review. Healthcare (Basel,
Switzerland), 11(1), 142.
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 100
Williams, A. J., Maguire, K., Morrissey, K., Taylor, T.& Wyatt, K. (2020). Social cohesion, mental
wellbeing and health-related quality of life among a cohort of social housing residents in
Cornwall: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 985.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09078-6.
Young, I. M. (2000). Inclusion and democracy. Oxford University Press.
Zadawa, A.N.,&Omran, A. (2020). Rural development in Africa: Challenges and opportunities. In A.
Omran & O. Schwarz-Herion(eds) Sustaining our environment for better future. (pp. 33-42).
Springer, Singapore.
Acciones e investigaciones Sociales. Nº 47 (2026)
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial 4.0. 101
Supplementary material 1
The relationship between the dependent variable and the explanatory variables is represented as
following:
Y= b1X1=b2X2+b3X3+b4X4+b5X5+b6X6+b7X7+b8X8+b9X9+b10X10+a
X1= relationship with the extended family members
X2= number of children in marriage
X3= husband’s value for a male child in marriage
X4= distance from the nearby urban area
X5= how many years spent in marriage
X6= education
X7= social cohesion
X8= perceived benefits of community-based organizations
X9= past experience with traditional harmful practices against women
X10= participation in the gender sensitization program
b1= regression coefficient for X1
b2= regression coefficient for X2
b3= regression coefficient for X3
b4= regression coefficient for X4
b5= regression coefficient for X5
b6= regression coefficient for X6
b7= regression coefficient for X7
b8= regression coefficient for X8
b9= regression coefficient for X9
b10= regression coefficient for X10
a = the intercept
