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The Female Face of Migration: Unveiling the Livelihood Strategies and

Struggles of Displaced Syrian Women

El Rostro Femenino de la Migración: Revelando las Estrategias de

Received: 2025-03-25. Approved: 2025-08-27

DOI: https://doi.org/10.26754/ojs_ais/accionesinvestig.soc..20254711686

Abstract

This study explores the livelihood strategies, role transformations, and challenges experienced by

Syrian refugee women in Turkey following forced migration. Using a qualitative phenomenological

design, it captures women’s lived experiences while identifying structural and socio-cultural factors

shaping their realities. Data were collected from 27 participants through semi-structured interviews,

participants, despite holding skilled occupations in Syria—such as lawyer, nurse, engineer, or

teacher—shifted into informal, low-paid, or insecure work in Turkey, or remained unemployed.

Structural barriers, including limited recognition of qualifications, bureaucratic obstacles to work

permits, and labour market restrictions, hindered career continuity and reinforced economic

precarity. Women also reported shifts in family livelihood roles, assuming greater economic

responsibilities and reduced caregiving time, alongside multidimensional changes in economic, social,

emotional, and cultural spheres. Reported challenges included low income, employment insecurity,

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lack of social networks, language barriers, and legal exclusion. The findings contribute t literature on

forced migration and gender, offering policy-relevant insights for inclusive, gender-sensitive

integration strategies.

identifica los factores estructurales y socioculturales que configuran sus realidades. Los datos se

recopilaron de 27 participantes mediante entrevistas semiestructuradas, complementadas con breves

reflexiones escritas en las que enumeraron sus opiniones inmediatamente después de la entrevista

para precisar sus pensamientos y añadir percepciones que podrían no surgir en la conversación. Las

entrevistas, realizadas en árabe con apoyo de traductor, fueron transcritas literalmente y analizadas

mediante análisis temático. Para mejorar la interpretación, los datos cualitativos también fueron

“cuantificados” calculando la frecuencia de las percepciones recurrentes en el conjunto de datos. Este

enfoque permitió resaltar los temas más prevalentes conservando la riqueza narrativa a través de citas

seleccionadas. Los hallazgos revelaron que muchas participantes, a pesar de haber ejercido

ocupaciones cualificadas en Siria—como abogada, enfermera, ingeniera o docente—pasaron a

multidimensionales en las esferas económica, social, emocional y cultural. Los desafíos señalados

incluyeron bajos ingresos, inseguridad laboral, ausencia de redes sociales, barreras lingüísticas y

exclusión legal. Los hallazgos contribuyen a la literatura sobre migración forzada y género, ofreciendo

recomendaciones relevantes para el diseño de estrategias de integración inclusivas y con perspectiva

de género.

INTRODUCTION

Forced migration has escalated to unprecedented levels in recent decades. By the end of 2020, over

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82.4 million people had been displaced globally due to war, conflict, or persecution, with the Syrian

civil war standing as one of the most acute crises. Since 2011, more than half of Syria’s population—

around 13.5 million—has been uprooted, including 6.8 million seeking international protection abroad

(UNHCR, 2024). Owing to its geographical proximity, Turkey became the primary host country; by

By the end of 2023, nearly half of the 117.3 million forcibly displaced individuals were women,

underscoring the gendered dimensions of displacement (UNHCR, 2024). Across contexts such as

Eritrea, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Ukraine, and Venezuela, women face overlapping vulnerabilities in

health, livelihoods, and psychological well-being (Bekyol & Bendel, 2016; Freedman, 2016; Krause,

2015; Janmyr, 2017; Capasso et al., 2022; Collins & Daly, 2021; Mazhak, 2023). Gender-based violence

represents a persistent risk: women encounter sexual assault, trafficking, and exploitation along

migration routes and in camps (Freedman, 2016; Krause, 2015; Canning, 2020). Syrian women were

exposed to sexual violence from both regime forces and extremist groups (Freedman, 2016), while

displaced Ukrainian women also report high risks of abuse (Capasso et al., 2022). Building on these

security concerns, health outcomes are also deeply affected. Refugee women often suffer

these intersections: in Sudan and South Sudan, women became breadwinners but also carried heavier

caregiving burdens (Saferworld, 2020). Educated Ukrainian women entered insecure, underqualified

jobs due to childcare (OECD, 2023). Syrian mothers reported children’s social exclusion compounding

family distress (Borges, 2024). Venezuelan women experienced discrimination, precarious work, and

trauma from violence (Collins & Daly, 2021). Collectively, these examples highlight displacement as a

structural and gendered crisis shaped by intersecting vulnerabilities of violence, poverty, health risks,

and exclusion.

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Gender, Poverty, and Migration in Syria: Exploring the Linkages

The Syrian civil war of 2011 created one of the most severe humanitarian crises of the 21st century,

displacing 6.7 million internally and forcing 5.4 million into neighbouring countries (Solymári & Gibárti,

2023). Driven by political instability, armed conflict, and human security threats (Kargın & Sirkeci,

men were breadwinners while women carried caregiving roles (CARE International, 2016). War

radically altered these dynamics. Poverty rose from 33% in 2010 to nearly 90% in subsequent years

(Lederer, 2023). Male mortality, displacement, and migration shifted gender roles (CARE International,

2016). Female-headed households increased from 4% pre-war to 12–17% by 2015 and exceeded 22%

later (CARE International, 2016; Al Jazeera, 2021). Patriarchal norms eroded as women assumed

financial responsibilities (Al Jazeera, 2021). Women entered agricultural labour, petty trade, and

handicrafts (Hilton, 2017). Female labour force participation rose from 13% in 2010 to 31% by 2022

(World Bank, 2023). Yet, these gains were constrained by low wages, informality, and caregiving

burdens (CARE International, 2016; OCHA, 2022).

educational attainment, bureaucratic obstacles for work permits (Öztürk et al., 2019; Aksu et al.,

2022), and discrimination. Many women remain unemployed or in precarious informal work such as

seasonal agriculture, textiles, and cleaning (Aksu et al., 2022). Kinship and social networks function as

key gateways to informal jobs, facilitating roles in domestic work or NGOs as interpreters and cultural

mediators (Aydın, 2021). Yet, women lacking such ties remain excluded. Programs in training,

language, and entrepreneurship exist, but participation is uneven due to caregiving responsibilities

(Özgür-Keysan & Şentürk, 2021).

Displacement disrupted household hierarchies, making women’s economic engagement necessity-

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driven rather than voluntary (Asaf, 2017; Shackle, 2019; Alhayek, 2016). Female-headed households

remain highly vulnerable, often dependent on aid or irregular work (Shackle, 2019). Home-based

micro-enterprises—sewing, cooking, hairdressing—have become adaptive strategies, frequently

supported by NGOs (UN Women, 2018; Dursun & Nizamoğlu, 2021). These contribute to income and

and humanitarian programming (Abunasser, 2023). Their experiences are frequently subsumed under

the generic category of “vulnerable women,” reducing their narratives to homogenous stereotypes.

Similarly, depictions of the “traditional woman” overlook variations in class, education, and

employment backgrounds; many women were professionals—teachers, doctors—before

displacement and now struggle with downward mobility (Lokot, 2018). Second, intra-household

dynamics remain underexplored. While existing studies examine employment or psychosocial

conditions (Mencütek & Nashwan, 2020), the transformation of family roles has been insufficiently

studied, particularly in Turkey, though some case studies in Europe highlight gender role restructuring

(Habib, 2018).

This study seeks to address these gaps by documenting the livelihood strategies and challenges of

METHOD

This study adopted a qualitative phenomenological research design, aiming to explore the lived

experiences of Syrian women in Turkey concerning their livelihood strategies following forced

migration. Phenomenology focuses on individuals' perceptions and meanings derived from their lived

experiences, making it particularly suitable for understanding the gendered and socio-economic

implications of displacement (Creswell, 2007).

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Participants

Participants were selected through criterion sampling, focusing on Syrian women who migrated to

Turkey (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2005). The study included 27 women aged 27–37; 77.8% were married and

22.2% single. In terms of education, 85.2% held university degrees and 14.8% had completed high

income-generating activities and economic autonomy, and the third examined changes in family roles

and responsibilities after migration. While guiding questions ensured consistency, the flexible format

allowed probing and follow-ups (Ekiz, 2003).

To complement the interviews, participants also provided itemized written reflections immediately

afterward. This practice, grounded in phenomenological traditions (Creswell & Poth, 2018; van

Manen, 2016), enabled participants to summarize fresh impressions, express overlooked points, and

engage in deeper reflection. These written accounts facilitated thematic coding and enhanced data

triangulation by allowing comparison with oral narratives, thereby strengthening validity (Patton,

2015).

All instruments were developed from a literature review and refined through feedback from five

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academic experts—two sociologists, one language and literature scholar, and two social work

specialists—at Medipol and Üsküdar Universities. Their expertise in migration, qualitative

methodology, and socio-cultural dynamics ensured methodological rigor, cultural sensitivity, and

contextual relevance

and frequencies were calculated to show how often themes appeared across the dataset. This

deliberate use of quantification—the conversion of qualitative data into numerical form—was

employed to identify the most prevalent themes while retaining the depth and nuance of narratives

(Sandelowski, 2001). Unlike structured surveys with predefined categories, this inductive strategy

enabled themes to emerge organically, ensuring the analysis remained grounded in participants’ lived

realities (Patton, 2015).

To illustrate findings, frequency tables generated in SPSS 21 were combined with verbatim participant

quotations, a widely used practice in qualitative reporting that enriches interpretation and focuses

participants’ voices (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Coding was conducted independently by two researchers,

yielding an inter-coder reliability coefficient of 86.3% using Miles and Huberman’s (1994) formula,

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As presented in Table 2, occupational diversity in Syria was notable, with professions such as law,

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and effort. All respondents agreed their pay does not reflect the intensity of their work, indicating a

pervasive sense of wage injustice tied to informal employment, weak protections, and limited

bargaining power. P27 shared, “I work from early morning to night, but my pay is barely enough to

survive.” P24 noted, “We do the hardest jobs, but still earn less than locals doing easier work.” P11

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phenomenon widely noted in migration literature (Hondagneu-Sotelo, 1994; Kofman, 2004). Second,

participants described heightened exposure to gender-based stereotypes and prejudices in the host

society, which not only limited their professional opportunities but also affected their psychological

well-being. Third, migration often demanded more profound changes from women in their traditional

Work–Family Life Changes Post-Migration

The findings of the present study demonstrate that migrant women face increased work

responsibilities, longer working hours, and less time for their children. While women had more time

for family and social life before migration, they have undergone significant transformations due to the

changing job conditions and economic necessities post-migration. Castles and Miller (2009) state that

as individuals adapt to new socio-economic conditions in the host country, they experience shifts in

living standards and are compelled to restructure their time management. This aligns with the current

study’s findings. The results also indicate that women migrating to Turkey face increased workloads

as they enter the workforce. Reza (2019) argues that migrant workers are often compelled to work

al., 1993). The findings suggest that migrant women must establish a new balance in terms of time

management and workload.

Perceived Changes Experienced

The findings of this study indicate that participants reported experiencing significant changes—

material, emotional, social, and cultural—compared to the past. The literature also highlights that

social and economic changes influence individuals’ cultural identities and sense of belonging (Giddens,

1991). In particular, economic conditions can profoundly affect lifestyles, leading to both individual

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and societal transformations during modernization (Beck, 1992). Studies on the impact of financial

change on living standards show that economic status influences not only individual well-being but

also social relations and cultural participation (Sen, 1999). In terms of spiritual changes, individuals’

values, belief systems, and psychological well-being may evolve over time (Taylor, 1989). Social

the long-term effects of these changes.

Main Challenges in Adaptation

Syrian refugee women in Turkey face multifaceted challenges, including material and emotional

deprivation, language barriers, health and housing difficulties, and professional disadvantages. Long

working hours, limited family time, lack of work permits, weak social support, and prejudiced local

attitudes further exacerbate these difficulties. These findings reveal multiple layers of disadvantage,

consistent with the literature: migrant women often face economic and psychological vulnerability

due to material deprivation and blocked professional pathways (Kofman & Raghuram, 2005); language

barriers restrict access to services and deepen isolation (Ager & Strang, 2008); and even basic needs