Impact pathways of trade liberalization on rural livelihoods: A case study of smallholder maize farmers in Mexico
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26754/ojs_ried/ijds.38Palabras clave:
Mexico, liberalización comercial, estrategias de sustento, minifundios de maíz, pobrezaResumen
Las investigaciones que evalúan el impacto de la liberalización comercial en poblaciones rurales pobres puede dividirse en dos categorías: investigaciones más cuantitativas, que analizan relaciones entre variables específicas y medibles (como cambios en el entorno macroeconómico y su impacto en los niveles de renta de los agricultores); e investigaciones más cualitativas, que toman la política comercial como un contexto y proporcionan datos amplios y descriptivos sobre estrategias de sustento dinámicas. En este artículo se dibuja un esquema que podría emplearse para integrar estos dos enfoques desentrañando las relaciones macro-micro entre las políticas nacionales y las respuestas a un nivel de hogar. Analizando el sector de maíz mexicano, dibujamos las sendas a través de las cuales la liberalización comercial (incluyendo el Acuerdo de Libre Comercio de América del Norte) ha interactuado con cambios en instituciones gubernamentales y de esta manera ha impactado en las estrategias de sustento de los agricultores. Identificamos tres sendas que impactan hogares e individuos: empresas, canales de distribución y gobierno; y las relacionamos con cinco estrategias de lucha contra la pobreza rural por parte de los pequeños campesinos: intensificación, diversificación, expansión, mayores ingresos fuera de la agricultura, y abandono de la agricultura. En base a un estudio de caso en Chiapas (Mexico), analizamos las respuestas de los agricultores a las políticas de post-liberalización agrícola. Los datos sugieren que los agricultores han intensificado la producción de maíz, han buscado más empleos fuera de las explotaciones o han abandonado la agricultura. El potencial de los pequeños campesinos para escapar de la pobreza diversificando cultivos o expandiendo sus tierras o el tamaño de sus rebaños no se ha materializado. Proporcionamos un esquema conceptual para relacionar el impacto de la liberalización con las estrategias de sustento rural y sugerimos que este esquema es útil en un contexto de iniciativas de modernización agrícolas que buscan incrementar la producción y productividad agrícolas.
CITAR COMO:
Hellin, J., Groenewald, S., Keleman, A. (2012). Impact pathways of trade liberalization on rural livelihoods: A case study of smallholder maize farmers in Mexico. Iberoamerican Journal of Development Studies, 1 (1): 58-82
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BARKIN D (2002). The Reconstruction of a Modern Mexican Peasantry. The Journal of PEASANT Studies 30(1):73-90
BEBBINGTON A (1999). Capitals and capabilities: a framework for analysing peasant viability, rural livelihoods and poverty. World Development 27(12):2012-2044
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BELLON MR, ADATO M, BECERRIL J, MINDEK D (2007). Improved Maize Germplasm, Creolization, and Poverty: The Case of Tuxpeño-Derived Material in Mexico. In: Adato M, Meinzen-Dick R (eds). Agricultural Research, Livelihoods and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
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BELLON MR, HODSON D, HELLIN J (2011). Assessing the Vulnerability of Traditional Maize Seed Systems in Mexico to Climate Change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (33):13432-13437
BLAIKIE P (1989). Explanation and policy in land degradation and rehabilitation for developing countries. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation 1:23-37
BRUSH SB (2000). The issues of in-situ conservation of crop genetic resources. In: Brush SB (ed). Genes in the field: on-farm conservation of crop diversity. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy, pp 3-26
BRUSH SB, CHAUVET, M (2004). Assessment of social and cultural effects associated with transgenic maize production. Chapter VI. In Maize and Biodiversity: The Effects of Transgenic Maize in Mexico. North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal. http://www.cec.org/pubs_docs/documents/index.cfm?varlan=english&ID=1430
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CORD L, WODON Q (2001). Do Agricultural Programs in Mexico Alleviate Poverty? Evidence from the Ejido Sector. Cuadernos de Economía 38(114)
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FITTING E (2006). Importing Corn, Exporting Labour: The Neoliberal Corn Regime, GMOs, and the Erosion of Biodiversity in Mexico. Journal of Agriculture and Human Values 23:15-26
GARCÍA BARRIOS R, GARCÍA BARRIOS L (1990). Environmental and Technological De gradation of Peasant Agriculture: A Consequence of Development in Mexico. World Development 18(11):1569-1585
GARCÍA RAÑÓ H, KELEMAN A (2007). La crisis de la tortilla del 2007: Coyuntura, o ¿falla estructural? Oxfam International, Mexico City, Mexico
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GONZÁLEZ DÁVILA O (2010). Food security and poverty in Mexico: the impact of higher global food prices. Food Security 2:383-393
HAMILTON S, FISCHER EF (2003). Non-traditional agricultural exports in highland Guatemala: Understandings of risk and perceptions of change. Latin American Research Review 38(3):82-110
HANSON GH, HARRISON A (1999). Trade Liberalization and Wage Inequality in Mexico. Industrial and Labour Relations Review 52(2):271-288
KEILBACH BAER NM (2005). Maíz y frijol en México: perspectivas frente a la liberalización total de su comercio en el 2008. Documento de referencia para la Campaña Comercio Justo de Oxfam-Centroamérica
KELEMAN A, HELLIN J (2009). Specialty Maize Varieties in Mexico: A Case Study in Market-Driven Agro-Biodiversity Conservation. Journal of Latin American Geography 8(2):147-174
KELEMAN A, BELLON MR (2009). Maize Diversity, Rural Development Policy, and Farmers’ Practices: Lessons from Chiapas, Mexico. The Geographical Journal 175(1):52-70.
KING A (2006). Ten Years with NAFTA: A Review of the Literature and an Analysis of Farmer Responses in Sonora and Veracruz, Mexico. CIMMYT Special Report 06-01, CIMMYT/Congressional Hunger Centre, Mexico DF _81
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LEVY S (1994). Mexican Agriculture in the Free Trade Agreement: Transition Problems in Economic Reform. Working Paper No. 36. OECD Development Center, Paris
LIPPER L, COOPER D (2009). Managing plant genetic resources for sustainable use in food and agriculture: balancing the benefits in the field. In: Kontoleon A, Pascual U, Smale M (eds). Agrobiodiversity, conservation and economic development. Routledge, New York, pp 27-39
LONG N, VILLARREAL M (1998). Small product, big issues: value contestations and cultural identities in cross-border commodity networks. Development and Change 29:725-750
MARSDEN T, MUNTON R, WARD N, WHATMORE S (1996). Agricultural Geography and the Political Economy Approach: A Review. Economic Geography 72 (4):361-375
MCCULLOCH N, WINTERS LA, CIRERA X (2001). Trade Liberalization and Poverty: A Handbook. Centre for Economic Policy Research, London
MEILLEUR BA and HODGKIN T (2004). In-situ conservation of crop wild relatives: status and trends. Biodiversity and Conservation 13:663-684
NADAL A (2000). The Environmental and Social Impacts of Economic Liberalization on Corn Production in Mexico. WWF/Oxfam, Gland/Oxford
NADAL A (2002). Corn in NAFTA: Eight Years After. A Research Report Prepared for the North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation, May 2002. Available at: http://www.cec.org/files/pdf/ECONOMY/Corn-NAFTA_en.pdf (Access date: 24-04-2007)
NADAL A, GARCÍA RANO H (2006). Trade, Poverty & the Environment: A Case Study in the Biosphere Reserve Sierra de Santa Martha. Final Report to World Wildlife Foundation. World Wildlife Foundation, Mexico City
NAYLOR RL, FALCON WP, PUENTE-GONZÁLEZ A (2001). Policy Reforms and Mexican Agriculture: Views from the Yaqui Valley. CIMMYT Economics Program Paper No. 01-01, CIMMYT, Mexico DF
NIEHOF A (2004). The Significance of Diversification for Rural Livelihood Systems. Food Policy, 29(4):321-338
NIEHOF A , PRICE LL (2001). Rural Livelihood Systems: A Conceptual Framework. Wageningen–UPWARD Series on Rural Livelihoods No.1, WU, UPWARD, Wageningen
NORMAN D, DOUGLAS M (1994). Farming Systems in Development and Soil Conservation. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
OECD (2007). Agricultural and Fisheries Policies in Mexico: Recent Achievements Continuing the Reform Agenda. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris
PERALES HR, BENZ BF, BRUSH SB (2005). Maize diversity and ethno-linguistic diversity in Chiapas, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of. Sciences 102(3):949-954
PRESSOIR G, BERTHAUD J (2004a). Patterns of population structure in maize landraces from the Central Valleys of Oaxaca in Mexico. Heredity 92:88-94
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PUYANA A, ROMERO J (2006). 10 años con el TLCAN. FLACSO and El Colegio de México. Mexico City
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SADOULET E, DE JANVRY A, DAVIS B (2001). Cash Transfer Programs with Income Multipliers: PROCAMPO in Mexico. World Development 29(6):1043-1056
SCOONES I (2009). Livelihoods perspectives and rural development. Journal of Peasant Studies 36(1):171-196
SILVERMAN D (1993). Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for Analysing Talk, Text and Interaction. Sage Publications, London
SKOUFIAS E, DAVIS B, VEGA S de la (2001). Targeting the Poor in Mexico: An Evaluation of the Selection of Households into PROGRESA. World Development 29(10):1769-1784 82_
TAYLOR JE, YÚNEZ-NAUDE A, BARCEINAS PAREDES F, DYER G (2005). Transition Policy and the Structure of the Agriculture of Mexico. In: Huff KM, Meilke K, Knuston RD, Ochoa RF, Rude J, Yúnez-Naude A (eds). North American Agrifood Market Integration: Situation and Perspectives. Friesen Printers, Altona, Manitoba, pp 86-118
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TUCKMAN BH (1976). The Green Revolution and the Distribution of Agricultural Income in Mexico. World Development 4(1):17-24
WIGGINS S, KEILBAUCH N, PREIBISCH K, PROCTOR S, RIVERA HERREJÓN G, RODRÍGUEZ MUÑOZ G (2002). Agricultural Policy Reform and Rural Livelihoods in Central Mexico. Journal of Development Studies 38(4):179-202
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BARKIN D (2002). The Reconstruction of a Modern Mexican Peasantry. The Journal of PEASANT Studies 30(1):73-90
BEBBINGTON A (1999). Capitals and capabilities: a framework for analysing peasant viability, rural livelihoods and poverty. World Development 27(12):2012-2044
BELLON MR, HELLIN J (2011). Planting hybrids, keeping landraces: agricultural modernization and tradition among small-scale maize farmers in Chiapas, Mexico. World Development. Doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.12.010.
BELLON MR, ADATO M, BECERRIL J, MINDEK D (2007). Improved Maize Germplasm, Creolization, and Poverty: The Case of Tuxpeño-Derived Material in Mexico. In: Adato M, Meinzen-Dick R (eds). Agricultural Research, Livelihoods and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore
BELLON MR (2004). Conceptualizing Interventions to Support On-Farm Genetic Resource Conservation. World Development 32, No. 1:159-172.
BELLON MR, HODSON D, HELLIN J (2011). Assessing the Vulnerability of Traditional Maize Seed Systems in Mexico to Climate Change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108 (33):13432-13437
BLAIKIE P (1989). Explanation and policy in land degradation and rehabilitation for developing countries. Land Degradation and Rehabilitation 1:23-37
BRUSH SB (2000). The issues of in-situ conservation of crop genetic resources. In: Brush SB (ed). Genes in the field: on-farm conservation of crop diversity. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy, pp 3-26
BRUSH SB, CHAUVET, M (2004). Assessment of social and cultural effects associated with transgenic maize production. Chapter VI. In Maize and Biodiversity: The Effects of Transgenic Maize in Mexico. North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal. http://www.cec.org/pubs_docs/documents/index.cfm?varlan=english&ID=1430
CHAMBERS R (1997). Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First Last. Intermediate Tech-nology Publications, London
CHAMBERS R, CONWAY GR (1992). Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: Practical Concepts for the 21st Century. IDS Discussion Paper No. 296, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton
CORD L, WODON Q (2001). Do Agricultural Programs in Mexico Alleviate Poverty? Evidence from the Ejido Sector. Cuadernos de Economía 38(114)
DE HAAN L (2000a). Livelihood, Locality and Globalization. Nijmegen University Press, Nijmegen
DE HAAN L (2000b). The Question of Development and Environment in Geography in the Area of Globalisation. GeoJournal 50:359-367
DE JANVRY A, HELFAND S (1990). The dynamics of peasant agriculture in Latin America: Implications for rural development and agroecology. In: Altieri MA, Hecht SB (eds). Agroecology and Small Farm Development. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Ann Arbor, Boston, USA, pp 61-69
DE JANVRY A, SADOULET E, ANDA GD (1995). NAFTA and Mexico’s Maize Producers World Development 23:1349-1362
DE JANVRY A, SADOULET E, YOUNG LW (1989). Land and labour in Latin American Agriculture from the 1950s to the 1980s. Journal of Peasant Studies 16 (3):396-424
DEVEREUX S, BAULCH B, HUSSEIN K, SHOHAM J, SIDA H, WILCOCK D (2004). Improving the Analysis of Food Insecurity: Food Insecurity Measurement, Livelihood Approaches and Policy: Applications in FIVIMS. Available at: http://www.fivims.net/documents/Final%20Paper5.pdf (Access date: 29-02-2008)
DIXON JM, GULLIVER A, GIBBON D (2001). Farming Systems and Poverty: Improving Farmer’s Livelihoods in a Changing World, FAO & World Bank, Rome, Italy & Washington DC
DORWARD A, POOLE N, MORRISON J, KYDD J, UREY I (2003). Markets, institutions and technology: missing links in livelihood analysis. Development Policy Review 21(3): 319-332
DYER GA, TAYLOR JE (2011). The Corn Price Surge: Impacts on Rural Mexico. World Development 39(10):1878-1887
ELLIS F (2000). Rural Livelihood and Diversity in Developing Countries: Analysis, Methods, Policy. Oxford University Press, Oxford
FARRINGTON J, CARNEY D, ASHLEY C, TURTON C (1999). Sustainable Livelihoods in Practice: Early Application of Concepts in Rural Areas. ODI Natural Resource Perspective No. 42, The Overseas Development Institute, London
FERNÁNDEZ CASTILLO S (2004). Farewell to the Peasantry? (Post) Modernizing Rural Mexico: The Case of the Ejido Peasants in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Ph. D. Thesis, Lund, University of Lund
FITTING E (2004). No hay dinero en la Milpa: el maíz y el hogar transnacional del sur del valle de Tehuacan. In: Binford L (ed). La economía política de la migración internacional en Puebla y Veracruz: siete estudios de caso. CONACYT, Mexico DF. pp 61-101
FITTING E (2006). Importing Corn, Exporting Labour: The Neoliberal Corn Regime, GMOs, and the Erosion of Biodiversity in Mexico. Journal of Agriculture and Human Values 23:15-26
GARCÍA BARRIOS R, GARCÍA BARRIOS L (1990). Environmental and Technological De gradation of Peasant Agriculture: A Consequence of Development in Mexico. World Development 18(11):1569-1585
GARCÍA RAÑÓ H, KELEMAN A (2007). La crisis de la tortilla del 2007: Coyuntura, o ¿falla estructural? Oxfam International, Mexico City, Mexico
GARCÍA-SALAZAR JA, SKAGGS R, CRAWFORD TL (2011). PROCAMPO, the Mexican corn market, and Mexican food security. Food Security 3:383-394
GONZÁLEZ DÁVILA O (2010). Food security and poverty in Mexico: the impact of higher global food prices. Food Security 2:383-393
HAMILTON S, FISCHER EF (2003). Non-traditional agricultural exports in highland Guatemala: Understandings of risk and perceptions of change. Latin American Research Review 38(3):82-110
HANSON GH, HARRISON A (1999). Trade Liberalization and Wage Inequality in Mexico. Industrial and Labour Relations Review 52(2):271-288
KEILBACH BAER NM (2005). Maíz y frijol en México: perspectivas frente a la liberalización total de su comercio en el 2008. Documento de referencia para la Campaña Comercio Justo de Oxfam-Centroamérica
KELEMAN A, HELLIN J (2009). Specialty Maize Varieties in Mexico: A Case Study in Market-Driven Agro-Biodiversity Conservation. Journal of Latin American Geography 8(2):147-174
KELEMAN A, BELLON MR (2009). Maize Diversity, Rural Development Policy, and Farmers’ Practices: Lessons from Chiapas, Mexico. The Geographical Journal 175(1):52-70.
KING A (2006). Ten Years with NAFTA: A Review of the Literature and an Analysis of Farmer Responses in Sonora and Veracruz, Mexico. CIMMYT Special Report 06-01, CIMMYT/Congressional Hunger Centre, Mexico DF _81
LEVY S, VAN WIJNBERGEn S (1992). Maize and the Free-Trade Agreement between Mexico and the United States. World Bank Economic Review 6(3):481-502.
LEVY S (1994). Mexican Agriculture in the Free Trade Agreement: Transition Problems in Economic Reform. Working Paper No. 36. OECD Development Center, Paris
LIPPER L, COOPER D (2009). Managing plant genetic resources for sustainable use in food and agriculture: balancing the benefits in the field. In: Kontoleon A, Pascual U, Smale M (eds). Agrobiodiversity, conservation and economic development. Routledge, New York, pp 27-39
LONG N, VILLARREAL M (1998). Small product, big issues: value contestations and cultural identities in cross-border commodity networks. Development and Change 29:725-750
MARSDEN T, MUNTON R, WARD N, WHATMORE S (1996). Agricultural Geography and the Political Economy Approach: A Review. Economic Geography 72 (4):361-375
MCCULLOCH N, WINTERS LA, CIRERA X (2001). Trade Liberalization and Poverty: A Handbook. Centre for Economic Policy Research, London
MEILLEUR BA and HODGKIN T (2004). In-situ conservation of crop wild relatives: status and trends. Biodiversity and Conservation 13:663-684
NADAL A (2000). The Environmental and Social Impacts of Economic Liberalization on Corn Production in Mexico. WWF/Oxfam, Gland/Oxford
NADAL A (2002). Corn in NAFTA: Eight Years After. A Research Report Prepared for the North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation, May 2002. Available at: http://www.cec.org/files/pdf/ECONOMY/Corn-NAFTA_en.pdf (Access date: 24-04-2007)
NADAL A, GARCÍA RANO H (2006). Trade, Poverty & the Environment: A Case Study in the Biosphere Reserve Sierra de Santa Martha. Final Report to World Wildlife Foundation. World Wildlife Foundation, Mexico City
NAYLOR RL, FALCON WP, PUENTE-GONZÁLEZ A (2001). Policy Reforms and Mexican Agriculture: Views from the Yaqui Valley. CIMMYT Economics Program Paper No. 01-01, CIMMYT, Mexico DF
NIEHOF A (2004). The Significance of Diversification for Rural Livelihood Systems. Food Policy, 29(4):321-338
NIEHOF A , PRICE LL (2001). Rural Livelihood Systems: A Conceptual Framework. Wageningen–UPWARD Series on Rural Livelihoods No.1, WU, UPWARD, Wageningen
NORMAN D, DOUGLAS M (1994). Farming Systems in Development and Soil Conservation. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
OECD (2007). Agricultural and Fisheries Policies in Mexico: Recent Achievements Continuing the Reform Agenda. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris
PERALES HR, BENZ BF, BRUSH SB (2005). Maize diversity and ethno-linguistic diversity in Chiapas, Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of. Sciences 102(3):949-954
PRESSOIR G, BERTHAUD J (2004a). Patterns of population structure in maize landraces from the Central Valleys of Oaxaca in Mexico. Heredity 92:88-94
PRETTY JN (1995). Regenerating Agriculture: Policies and Practice for Sustainability and Self-Reliance. Earthscan Publications, London
PUYANA A, ROMERO J (2006). 10 años con el TLCAN. FLACSO and El Colegio de México. Mexico City
RHOADES RE (1991). The Art of the Informal Agricultural Survey. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Research Guide 36. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Research, Ibadan, Nigeria
SADOULET E, DE JANVRY A, DAVIS B (2001). Cash Transfer Programs with Income Multipliers: PROCAMPO in Mexico. World Development 29(6):1043-1056
SCOONES I (2009). Livelihoods perspectives and rural development. Journal of Peasant Studies 36(1):171-196
SILVERMAN D (1993). Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for Analysing Talk, Text and Interaction. Sage Publications, London
SKOUFIAS E, DAVIS B, VEGA S de la (2001). Targeting the Poor in Mexico: An Evaluation of the Selection of Households into PROGRESA. World Development 29(10):1769-1784 82_
TAYLOR JE, YÚNEZ-NAUDE A, BARCEINAS PAREDES F, DYER G (2005). Transition Policy and the Structure of the Agriculture of Mexico. In: Huff KM, Meilke K, Knuston RD, Ochoa RF, Rude J, Yúnez-Naude A (eds). North American Agrifood Market Integration: Situation and Perspectives. Friesen Printers, Altona, Manitoba, pp 86-118
TAYLOR JE, DYER GA, YÚNEZ-NAUDE A (2005). Disaggregated Rural Economywide Models for Policy Analysis. World Development 33(10):1671-1688
TEN KATE A (1992). Trade Liberalisation and Economic Stabilization in Mexico: Lessons from Experience. World Development 20(5):659-672
TUCKMAN BH (1976). The Green Revolution and the Distribution of Agricultural Income in Mexico. World Development 4(1):17-24
WIGGINS S, KEILBAUCH N, PREIBISCH K, PROCTOR S, RIVERA HERREJÓN G, RODRÍGUEZ MUÑOZ G (2002). Agricultural Policy Reform and Rural Livelihoods in Central Mexico. Journal of Development Studies 38(4):179-202
WINTERS LA (2000a). Trade and Poverty: Is There a Connection? In: Nordstrom BD, Winters LA (eds). Trade Income Disparity and Poverty. World Trade Organisation, Geneva, pp 43-69
WINTERS LA (2000b). Trade Liberalisation and Poverty. Prus Working Paper No. 7, Research Unit Sussex, Sussex, UK
WINTERS LA (2002). Trade, Trade Policy and Poverty: What Are the Links? World Economy 25:1339-1367
WORLD BANK (2007). World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. The World Bank, Washington DC
WORLD BANK (2008). Mexico Country Brief. Available at: http://go.worldbank.org/ZF-QFJM2DO0 (Access date: 18-06-2008)
YÚNEZ-NAUDE A (2003). The Dismantling of CONASUPO, a Mexican State Trader in Agriculture. World Development 26(1):97-122
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09-05-2012
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Hellin, J., Groenewald, S., & Keleman, A. (2012). Impact pathways of trade liberalization on rural livelihoods: A case study of smallholder maize farmers in Mexico. Revista Iberoamericana De Estudios De Desarrollo = Iberoamerican Journal of Development Studies, 1(1), 58–82. https://doi.org/10.26754/ojs_ried/ijds.38
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Derechos de autor 2012 Jon Hellin, Sytske Groenewald, Alder Keleman
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivadas 4.0.
